Human Sexuality Essay Example Essay Example

Human Sexuality Essay Example Paper Human Sexuality Essay Introduction James and Mary experience an unsatisfactory sexual relationship due to James’ disfunction of keeping an hard-on half the clip. James could be sing Performance Anxiety. Performance anxiousness is the anxiousness a adult male has when he thinks he is non acquiring an hard-on fast plenty. or his hard-on is non steadfast plenty. or does non look to last long plenty. Once a adult male experiences even a individual instance of ED. he may go on a rhythm of anxiousness about repeated episodes of unsatisfactory hard-ons. He will expect erectile jobs. fixating on public presentation instead than the enjoyable facets of sexual rousing. His ability to loosen up is hampered. increasing negative self-talk. and his perceptual experiences of self-worth and spouse are negative. James is acquiring frustrated and going uninterested in sex. He is besides embarrassed about his job. Mary is besides frustrated with his disfunction. Mary is the 1 who initiates familiarity but her hubby does non react like she wants him to. He has no desire for familiarity and can largely maintain an hard-on when he masturbates in the shower and so he avoids familiarity with his married woman. He feels that his sexual relationship with his married woman is hopeless and does non desire to discourse the issue with her. The Dynamics of the Relationship The couple’s relationship is strained and there is no communicating when it comes to speaking about desires and familiarity. Their sexual relationship is distant and frustrating. James is non turned on by Mary and thinks he would be turned on more if Mary lost weight and wore intimate apparel. James obviously lacks cognition about his gender. He avoids familiarity with his married woman and his first brush of holding an hard-on was abashing and made him baffled. Sexual disfunction can take to the development of other conditions are more likely to develop other conditions such as depression. Peoples with other conditions such as cardiovascular disease are more likely to develop erectile disfunction. Human Sexuality Essay Body Paragraphs Diagnostic Impressions A â€Å"multi-axial† system for appraisal provides a comprehensive holistic diagnosing that includes a complete image of non merely acute symptoms but all of the factors that makes up mental wellness. The client in inquiry is James who is holding a job with his sexual disfunction issue. He was raised in a traditional white vicinity in the South where his household that did non discourse any intimate topics like sex. feelings or show fondness. The World Association of Sexual Health provinces that disfunction can take to anxiety and consequence self-pride which James has. He is embarrassed about non being able to hold an hard-on or maintain one during familiarity with his married woman. Sexual Response Cycle Sexual response rhythm is a manner in which to understand the procedure of sexual behaviour. It includes both the physical every bit good as the emotional alterations a individual experiences during sexual engagement ( Capella University ) . Areas of s exual disfunction may include: erectile disfunction ( ED ) . premature interjection. and public presentation anxiousness etc. The human sexual response rhythm has four stages which include ; exhilaration. tableland. climax. and declaration. If there is a job in one of these stages so sexual operation is missing. Sexual response is due to alterations in ones’ head and organic structure. Psychologically there are titillating ideas during rousing and there are alterations in the organic structure. Analysis and comparing of the sexual response rhythm and the construct of sexual normalcy Professionals need to be able to discourse sexual operation. sexual normalcy and disfunction with the client. It is of import to cognize about the sexual response rhythm. sexual disfunction jobs. gender and cultural issues refering gender. The sexual response rhythm helps foreground where sexual disfunction may happen. In contrast. sexual normalcy is besides represented on this rhythm as a positiv e proof of one’s expectancy which hence crystallizes one’s experience taking to further positive expectancy ( Sewell. 2005 ) . The response rhythm starts in the rousing or excitement stage but it would be most utile to see a desire stage that goes before the rousing or the excitement stage. During the desire stage. physiological sexual rousing is non of primary importance. The sexual response rhythm is characterized by physiological and psychological displacements. Psychologically. there is an addition in titillating ideas ( the particular content of which is extremely individualized ) and a heightened consciousness of pleasance esthesiss from erogenous organic structure zones. With increasing physiological rousing. there is a narrowing of attending such that focal cues are processed intensely whereas non-focal cues are less likely than usual even to be noticed. Physically. the bosom rate additions every bit good as respiration which besides shallows blood flow to the appendages increases. and primary sex variety meats engorge with blood. Erectile disfunction happens when there is non plenty blood flows to the phallus. forestalling an hard-on. Erectile disfunction. or ED. is the medical term for troubles obtaining and maintaining an hard-on. It is a sexual wellness job that affects about 30 million work forces. Erectile upset is common happening in work forces. Attitudes toward sex and public presentation anxiousness are related McCabe ( 2005 ) . Sexual disfunction may take to a lower sex thrust to non desiring to hold sex at all. Unsatisfied sexual experiences can take to other assorted the relational psychological issues. One of the most common types of disfunctions is low desire and rousing. This disrupts the sexual response rhythm in the first two stages of desire and rousing. The client’s personality factors and psychological issues could besides impact erectile operation in a negative manner. Schizophrenia and bipolar upset can do it hard to maintain feelings of sexual desire and concentrate behavior plenty to hold satisfactory hard-ons. Creation of three mensurable ends for intervention Treatment for Erectile disfunction must turn to all of the lending factors such as the physical. psychological and societal countries for the client. It besides must be brought all together thoroughly and be intimacy-based. The first thing to make is discourse how to put ends by Puting a Goal– 1 ) decide on a end you want to make 2 ) decide on the stairss you will necessitate to take to acquire at that place and compose them down. 3 ) take the first measure. 4 ) take all the other stairss. one at a clip. 5 ) wages yourself when your end is reach. If James is holding no physical jobs. he must turn to his psychological jobs and societal jobs. He needs to utilize the end of Identifying nerve-racking state of affairss by 1 ) melody in to your body’s emphasis signals. 2 ) inquire yourself am I experiencing stressed? . 3 ) inquire what is doing me experience this manner? . 4 ) choose stress reducing agent or relaxation techniques Reducing public presentation anxiousness can be done with Cognitive behavioural techniques along with the relaxation techniques and development of a wider scope of sexual activities beyond intercourse. Spouses can assist to place and rectify anxiousness arousing thought procedures. such as all-or-none thought. Furthermore. the twosome. instead than the adult male entirely. can outdo redefine sexual activity. the healer truly promotes conditions that focus on relaxation. basking esthesiss that are more enjoyable therefore extinguishing anxiousness and promoting the man’s spouse to loosen up. The 2nd thing to turn to is his job pass oning with his married woman. Expressing Affection is another end James needs to work on by 1 ) make up one’s mind if you have good feeling about the other individual. 2 ) make up one’s mind if you think the other individual would wish to cognize you experience this manner. 3 ) Decide what to state. 4 ) take a good clip and topographic point. 5 ) Tell the individual in a friendly manner. Due to James’ being upset and frustrated a end must be set to cut down his defeat. The first Goal is to develop schemes to cut down symptoms and better get bying accomplishments by 1- Learn 3 new ways of get bying with everyday stressors 3 out of 7 yearss. 2- Recognize and program for three anxiety-provoking state of affairss. 3 ) Report experiencing more positive about ego and abilities during therapy Sessionss Treatment can besides dwell of backsliding bar by holding the twosome optimize their sexual relationship with the geographic expedition of titillating activities. techniques. and communications to beef up the couple’s sexual relationship and prevent backsliding or the development of other disfunctions. Therapists should be cognizant that relapses can happen and as a normative portion of interventi on. Ethical and culturally-relevant attacks to handling any sexual issues Cultural competency is based upon regard. proof and openness towards person with different societal and cultural perceptual experiences and outlooks that are non your ain. Culture helps us understand how others interpret their environment. It besides shapes how people see their universe and how they function in that universe. By understanding civilization service suppliers can avoid stereotyping and prejudices and concentrate on the positive features of a peculiar group. Counselors must be able to measure the culturally diverse demands of the client use culturally sensitive and appropriate techniques and intercessions based on the race. ethnicity and linguistic communication. Besides to place resources that is available to extinguish barriers. Sexual orientation refers to an digesting form of emotional. romantic. and/or sexual attractive forces to work forces. adult females. or both sexes and a person’s sense of individuality based on those attractive forces and others who portion those attractive forces A PA ( 2008 ) . Mentions: SEWELL. K. W. ( 2005 ) . The Experience Cycle And The Sexual Response Cycle: Conceptualization And Application To Sexual Dysfunctions. Journal Of Constructivist Psychology. 18 ( 1 ) . 3-13. doi:10. 1080/10720530590522973 McCabe. M. P. ( 2005 ) . The Role Of Performance Anxiety In The Development And Maintenance Of Sexual Dysfunction In Men And Women. International Journal Of Stress Management. 12 ( 4 ) . 379-388. World Health Organization’s 2008 article â€Å"Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement. † pages 1–40. McCarthy. B. W. . A ; Metz. M. E. ( 2008 ) . The â€Å"Good-Enough Sex† theoretical account: a instance illustration. Sexual A ; Relationship Therapy. 23 ( 3 ) . 227-234. doi:10. 1080/14681990802165919 hypertext transfer protocol: //www. apa. org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation. American Psychol ogical Association. ( 2008 ) . 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The Negros Civil War in Tennessee essays

The Negro's Civil War in Tennessee essays The article, The Negros Civil War in Tennessee, 1861-1865 by Bobby L. Lovett, was published in "The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 61, No. 1", (Jan., 1976). In the article, Lovett writes about the contributions of black Tennessean's during the Civil War in obtaining their freedom - under some of the worst racial conditions and violence one could imagine. The decision to draft black men for military service was made on June 28, 1861 by the Tennessee State General Assembly and it was the first such act in the United States. There were three provisions to the act; - all free black males between the ages of fifteen and fifty were eligible for - each month, the men would receive eighteen dollars plus rations and clothing - those who refused military service would be arrested and charged with a punishable misdemeanor The passing of this act meant that black men were going to war. One strength of Lovett's article is the emphasis on the shift in ideology among black people in that they no longer felt too dumb to function on their own. With the war still in it's early stages, ex-slaves and other blacks wanted to get in on the action, hoping to fight those who had enslaved them and their families for generations. The men tried to enlist, but due to the color of their skin, were rejected for service. White soldiers and officers believed that black men didn't have the courage to fight and resented the thought of their slaves standing in Union blue uniforms. The massacre at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, on April 12, 1864, was one of the bloodiest battles fought by both white and black soldiers. Nathan Bedford Forrests Tennessee Confederate Cavalry took Fort Pillow and slaughtered 238 of the 262 black soldiers, claiming that the black troops refused to surrender. This massacre didn't intimidate the black men. Instead, it galvanized their courage, intensified ...

What would You do if YouI won 200 million dollar lottery Research Paper

What would You do if YouI won 200 million dollar lottery - Research Paper Example While most individuals believe they would relish this opportunity, it’s been noted that many of these people end up facing considerable problems in their lives because of the sudden influx of money (Veneziani). I recognize if I suddenly won 200 million dollars I would make the best use possible of it. In winning 200 million dollars one of the first things I would recognize is that I need to preserve some sort of structure within my life. Past lottery winners have even gone as far as keeping the jobs they held before winning the lottery (Celezic). While I don’t believe that I would keep working the same job I would attempt to preserve many of the aspects of my current life. In these regards, I would continue to live in the same town. I would also work at keeping the same group of friends. Rather I would implement my money to stay within the general structure of my current life, but enjoy it in fantastic ways. For instance, I would buy a much larger house, with a pool, an d an excellent view. I would then throw large parties at this home. This way I would be able to keep some semblance of my current existence, while enjoying the thrill of the million-dollar prize. Another important element of winning a million dollars is making safe investments. .

Go or No-go Decisions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Go or No-go Decisions - Assignment Example Fuzzy-gate concept helps manufacturers know whether they are going in the right direction of new product development or they need some changes or improvements. A firm should make the decisions regarding product development at both stages of the development, which include before development and during development. The reason for before development is that when the firm will be making appropriate decisions before developing the product, it will be able to manufacture right product for the customers. Similarly, when the firm will evaluate its decisions according to the market business during product development, it will be able to achieve desired results from the product. Essay Answer: 2 The techniques, which a company can use to attain speed in a new product project, include proper management of organization, intensifying resource commitments, designing for speed, preparing for rapid manufacturing, and preparing for rapid marketing. The techniques, which can be used in proper managemen t of organization while bringing a new cosmetics division in an established skincare company, include use of a good idea, properly analyzing customers’ demands, encouraging and protecting team, and clearing tracks in shared supporting departments. Similarly, some techniques for intensification of resource commitments include integration of channel members and use of parallel engineering. In case of design for speed, some good techniques include rapid prototyping, computer-aided design, and design-aided manufacturing. In case of preparing for rapid marketing, use of rollouts and facilitating trial purchasing are good options for a firm to attain speed. Some risks included in speed to market approach include improper analysis of the market, improper analysis of the customers’ demands, and development of an improper marketing strategy. Essay Answer: 3 New product ideas hold great importance in the process of new product development. ABC Company needs many ideas to select the best ideas for the product development. The department of new product development should look at the ideas generating from various sources, such as, employees, customers, research and development, competitors, distributors, psychologists, and outside sources. The department can collect valuable information from these sources because all of these sources play an important role in the overall process of product development. Sources, such as, competitors, research and development, employees, and outside sources can make the manufacturers aware of the needs and demands of the market regarding any specific product. Lead users are the people who use the product developed by the company. The role of lad users is very important in the development process because they can give the exact idea regarding what actually is demanded and expected by the intended users of the product. Therefore, manufacturers need to consider the opinion of led users while developing new products in order to ach ieve success in market. Essay Answer: 4 Social responsibility must be a key initiative because it builds a positive image of the brand in the minds of the customers. Being the new product development manager of motorized scooter, I will incorporate social responsibility to protect the environment as much as possible. I will develop an eco-friendly motorized scooter, which will have no noise and pollutant emissions. I will use the concept of green marketing to

Racism and Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Racism and Media - Essay Example n the aspect of not being living- rather, it is an integral part of it and therefore utilizes the pool of knowledge in society, or in other words, common sense. The media’s role in informing how African Americans are viewed by white Americans has been very key. One does not need to look far to see the images of violence, drug use and substance abuse that have now come to be associated with African Americans. They are everywhere in the movies for instance. You need a villain who will be finally beaten and imprisoned to make the hero look good, find a black guy, give him a gang, and a number of guns, and you have your story (Rooney, 2007). Typical example in the movie ‘the second chance†. African Americans too have come to be associated with poverty. They are portrayed as â€Å"these people who are doing everything to make the ends meet and yet whatever they do, regardless of their efforts is not nearly good enough†. For instance, in Tyler Perrys movie Good deeds, the lady cannot do anything to save her family which she cares about from poverty and is highly in need of a knight in shining armor, who shows up later in the film and fortunately for this film, happens to be an African American. The media does not only perpetuate the inferior view of African Americans contrary to white Americans by use of negative roles ascribed to these people in films, journals and books, also, through giving their white counterparts a nearly infallible view, presenting them as educated, wealthy and focused people, while not saying anything of their counterparts. It is true that you do not just inform by the things u say but also those that you do not. In conclusion, the media has and will continue to portray a negative view of African Americans. It communicates values, norms, beliefs and behaviors of members of the dominant society, which is the white American in this case (Rooney, 2007). As long as the small percentage that owns the business is of the dominant society,

Quantization process

Quantization process Quantization is a process of mapping an infinite set of scalar or vector quantities by a finite set of scalar or vector quantities. Quantization has applications in the areas of signal processing, speech processing and Image processing. In speech coding, quantization is required to reduce the number of bits used for representing a sample of speech signal there by the bit-rate, complexity and memory requirement can be reduced. Quantization results in the loss in the quality of a speech signal, which is undesirable. So a compromise must be made between the reduction in bit-rate and the quality of speech signal. Two types of quantization techniques exist they are: scalar quantization and vector quantization. Scalar quantization deals with the quantization of samples on a sample by sample basis, while vector quantization deals with quantizing the samples in groups called vectors. Vector quantization increases the optimality of a quantizer at the cost of increased computational complexity and memory requirements. Shannon theory states that quantizing a vector will be more effective than quantizing individual scalar values in terms of spectral distortion. According to Shannon the dimension of a vector chosen greatly affects the performance of quantization. Vectors of larger dimension produce better quality when compared to vectors of smaller dimension and in vectors of smaller dimension the transparency in the quantization is not good at a particular bit-rate chosen [8]. This is because in vectors of smaller dimension the correlation that exists between the samples will be lost and the scalar quantization itself destroys the correlation that exists between successive samples so the quality of the quantized speech signal will be lost. Therefore, quantizing correlated data requires techniques that preserve the correlation between the samples, such a technique is the vector quantization technique (VQ). Vector quantization is the simplification of scalar quantization. Vectors of larger dimension produce transparency in quantization at a particular bit-rate chosen. In Vector quantization the data is quantized in the form of contiguous blocks called vectors rather than individual samples. But later with the development of better coding techniques, it is made possible that transparency in quantization can also be achieved even for vectors of smaller dimension. In this thesis quantization is performed on vectors of full length and on vectors of smaller dimensions for a given bit-rate [4, 50]. An example of 2-dimensional vector quantizer is shown in Fig 4.1. The 2-dimensional region shown in Fig 4.1 is called as the voronoi region, which in turn contains several numbers of small hexagonal regions. The hexagonal regions defined by the blue borders are called as the encoding regions. The green dots represent the vectors to be quantized which fall in different hexagonal regions and the red dots represent the codewords (centroids). The vectors (green dots) falling in a particular hexagonal region can be best represented by the codeword (red dot) falling in that hexagonal region [51-54]. Vector quantization technique has become a great tool with the development of non variational design algorithms like the Linde, Buzo, Gray (LBG) algorithm. On the other hand besides spectral distortion the vector quantizer is having its own limitations like the computational complexity and memory requirements required for the searching and storing of the codebooks. For applications requiring higher bit-rates the computational complexity and memory requirements increases exponentially. The block diagram of a vector quantizer is shown in Fig 4.2. Let be an N dimensional vector with real valued samples in the range. The superscript T in the vector denotes the transpose of the vector. In vector quantization, a real valued N dimensional input vector is matched with the real valued N dimensional codewords of the codebook Ci , the codeword that best matches the input vector with lowest distortion is taken and the input vector is replaced by it. The codebook consists of a finite set of codewords C=Ci,, where , where C is the codebook, L is the length of the codebook and Ci denote the ith codeword in a codebook. In LPC coding the high bit-rate input vectors are replaced by the low bit-rate codewords of the codebook. The parameters used for quantization are the line spectral frequencies (LSF). The parameters used in the analysis and synthesis of the speech signals are the LPC coefficients. In speech coding the quantization is not performed directly on the LPC coefficients, the quantization is performed by transforming the LPC coefficients to other forms which ensure filter stability after quantization. Another reason for not using LPC coefficients is that, LPC coefficients have a wide dynamic range and so the LPC filter easily becomes unstable after quantization. So LPC coefficients are not used for quantization. The alternative to LPC coefficients is the use of line spectral frequency (LSF) parameters which ensure filter stability after quantization. The filter stability can be checked easily just by observing the order of the LSF samples in an LSF vector after quantization. If the LSF samples in a vector are in the ascending or descending order the filter stability can be ensured otherwise the filter stability cannot be ensured [54-58]. The angular positions of the roots of and gives us the line spectral frequencies and occurs in complex conjugate pairs. The line spectral frequencies range from. The line spectral frequencies have the following properties: Ø All the roots of and must lie on the unit circle which is the required condition for stability. Ø The roots of and are arranged in an alternate manner on the unit circle i.e., The roots of equation (4.6) can be obtained using the real root method [31] and is The coefficients of equations (4.6) and (4.7) are symmetrical and so the order p of equations (4.6) and (4.7) get reduces to p/2. Vector quantization of speech signals requires the generation of codebooks. The codebooks are designed using an iterative algorithm called Linde, Buzo and Gray (LBG) algorithm. The input to the LBG algorithm is a training sequence. The training sequence is the concatenation of a set LSF vectors obtained from people of different groups and of different ages. The speech signals used to obtain training sequence must be free of background noise. The speech signals used for this purpose can be recorded in sound proof booths, computer rooms and open environments. In this work the speech signals are recorded in computer rooms. In practice speech data bases like TIMIT database, YAHOO data base are available for use in speech coding and speech recognition. The codebook generation using LBG algorithm requires the generation of an initial codebook, which is the centroid or mean obtained from the training sequence. The centroid, so obtained is then splitted into two centroids or codewords using the splitting method. The iterative LBG algorithm splits these two codewords into four, four into eight and the process will be continued till the required numbers of codewords in the codebook are obtained [59-61]. The flow chart of LBG algorithm is shown in Fig 4.3. The LBG algorithm is properly implemented by a recursive procedure given below: 1. Initially the codebook generation requires a training sequence of LSF parameters which will be the input to LBG algorithm. The training sequence is obtained from a set of speech samples recorded from different groups of people in a computer room. 2. Let R be the region of the training sequence. 3. Obtain an initial codebook from the training sequence, which is the centroid or mean of the training sequence and let the initial codebook be C. 4. Split the initial codebook C into a set of codewords and where is the minimum error to be obtained between old and new codewords. 5. Compute the difference between the training sequence and each of the codewords and and let the difference be D. 6. Split the training sequence into two regions R1 and R2 depending on the difference D between the training sequence and the codewords and. The training vectors closer to falls in the region R1 and the training vectors closer to falls in the region R2. 7. Let the training vectors falling in the region R1 be TV1 and the training sequence vectors falling in the region R2 be TV2. 8. Obtain the new centroid or mean for TV1 and TV2. Let the new centroids be CR1 and CR2. 9. Replace the old centroids and by the new centroids CR1 and CR2. 10. Compute the difference between the training sequence and the new centroids CR1 and CR2 and Let the difference be . 11. Repeat steps 5 to 10 until . 12. Repeat steps 4 to 11 till the required number of codewords in the codebook are obtained. Where N=2b represents the number of codewords in the codebook and b represents the number of bits used for codebook generation. represents the difference between the training sequence and the old codewords, represents the difference between the training sequence and the new codewords. The quality of the speech signal is an important parameter in speech coders and is measured in terms of spectral distortion measured in decibels (dB). The spectral distortion is measured between the LPC power spectra of the quantized and unquantized speech signals. The spectral distortion is measured frame wise and the average or mean of the spectral distortion calculated over all frames will be taken as the final value of the spectral distortion. For a quantizer to be transparent the mean of the spectral distortion must be less than 1 dB without any audible distortion in the reconstructed speech. But the mean of the spectral distortion is not a sufficient measure to find the performance of a quantizer, this is because the human ear is sensitive to large quantization errors that occur occasionally. So in addition to measuring the mean of the spectral distortion it is also necessary to have another measure of quality which is the percentage number of frames having a spectral distorti on greater than 2dB and less than 4dB and the percentage number of frames having a spectral distortion greater than 4dB. The frames having spectral distortion between 2 to 4dB and greater than 4dB are called as outlier frames [54]. In order to measure objectively the distortion between the quantized and unquantized outputs, a method called the spectral distortion is often used in narrowband speech coding. For an ith frame the spectral distortion (in dB), is given by equation (4.19). (4.19) Where and are the LPC power spectra of the unquantized and quantized ith frame respectively. The frequency f is in Hz and the frequency range is given by f1 and f2. The frequency range used in practice for narrowband speech coding is 0-4000 Hz [12, 33]. The conditions for transparent speech coding are: Ø The average or mean of the spectral distortion (SD) must be less than or equal to 1dB. Ø There must be no outlier frames having a spectral distortion greater than 4dB. Ø The number of outlier frames between 2 to 4dB must be less than 2%. These three conditions are required to evaluate the performance of a quantizer. At a given bit-rate, an optimization process has to be carried out so as to obtain better performance i.e., accepting a large average spectral distortion for a few outliers. In the design of a vector quantizer instead of using the mean squared error (MSE) distance measure the weighted LSF distance measurement is used. This is done to place emphasis on the low frequency LSFs and on the LSFs with higher power spectrum. The weights used can be of two types they are: static or dynamic [54]. Ø Fixed or Static weights : These are used to place emphasis on the low frequency LSFs in order to account for the sensitivity of human ear for low and high frequency LSFs. Ø Varying or Dynamic weights : These are used to place emphasis on the LSFs with high power spectrum. There exist a number of vector quantization techniques each one is having its own advantages and disadvantages. Each technique is developed to decrease the parameters like spectral distortion, computational complexity and memory requirements. The vector quantization techniques that exist are the Split Vector Quantization (SVQ) technique, Multistage Vector Quantization (MSVQ) technique, Split-Multistage Vector Quantization (S-MSVQ) technique and Switched Split Vector Quantization (SSVQ) technique. As marketability and cost of a product depends on the complexity and memory requirements, the performance of the vector quantization techniques is measured in terms of spectral distortion in decibels, computational complexity in kilo flops per frame and memory requirements in floats. The performance of a vector quantization technique mainly depends on how efficiently the codebook is generated. The codebook can be generated efficiently using a large training set and using more number of bits for codebook generation. The goal involved in the design of each vector quantization technique is to make the technique to use more number of training vectors and less number of bits for codebook generation there by the spectral distortion, computational complexity and memory requirements can be reduced. It has been observed that as the number of bits used for codebook generation decreases the computational complexity and memory requirements decreases but the spectral distortion increases, this increase in spectral distortion can be reduced by increasing the number of training vectors used for codebook generation [62-71]. The block diagram of an Unconstrained Vector Quantizer (UVQ) is shown in Fig 4.4. Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique is the most awful vector quantization technique used for achieving lowest distortion at a given bit-rate and dimension. In LPC-10 the order of the filter chosen is 10 and so the length of each LSF vector will be 10. In Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique the quantization is done on vectors of full length i.e., using 10 samples of an LSF vector. From Fig 4.4 S1, S2, S3Sn are the input LSF vectors to be quantized using the Unconstrained Vector Quantizer. The main advantage of this vector quantization technique is that it is expected to give lowest quantization distortion at a given bit-rate as the correlation that exists between the samples of a vector is preserved. But the disadvantage with this quantization technique is that as vectors of full length are used, at higher bit-rates the computational complexity and memory requirements increases in an exponential manner making it impractical for applications requiring higher bit-rates. Another problem with this quantization technique is that at higher bit-rates the size of the codebook will be large and the generation of the codebook for this type of quantization technique will be difficult on general purpose computers as the memory available with them is limited. So the number of training vectors used for codebook generation must be limited in number or the length of each vector must be reduced. In practice on general purpose computers the codebook cannot be generated even with train ing vectors less than the number of codewords in a codebook at higher bit-rates. But the number of training vectors required to generate the codebook must be large than the number of codewords in a codebook otherwise there will be too much over fitting of the training set [54]. The computational complexity and memory requirements of a b bit, n dimensional vector quantizer are calculated as follows [54]: Ø To calculate the mean square error (MSE) between two vectors of n dimension, n subtractions, n multiplications and n-1 additions are required. So a total of 3n-1 flops are required. Ø To search a codebook of 2b code vectors, (3n-1)2b flops are required in addition to the minimum distortion search requiring 2b-1 flops. Ø So the number of computations made by a b bit, n dimensional vector quantizer is Total complexity = (3n-1)2b + 2b-1 = 3n2b-1 flops per vector. (4.24) In the computing the complexity each addition, multiplication and comparison is considered as one floating point operation. So a b bit n dimensional vector quantizer requires a codebook of 2b code vectors, it needs to store n2b floating point values, it computes 3n2b 1 flops per vector. Instead of the mean square error distance measure if weighted distance measure is used in the design of a vector quantizer the complexity increases from 3n2b 1 to 4n2b 1 flops per vector. The computational complexity of an Unconstrained Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.25) Where n is the dimension of the vector b is the number of bits allocated to the vector quantizer. The Memory requirements of an Unconstrained Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.26) Exhaustive search vector quantizers achieve lowest distortion at the expense of complexity and memory requirements at higher bit- rates. So to make the vector quantizers more practical for vectors of larger dimension and higher bit-rates structural constraints are imposed on the design of a vector quantizer or codebook. One way of achieving this is to decompose the codebook into a Cartesian product of smaller codebooks i.e., C = C1 * C2 * C3 . ..*Cm. The advantage with smaller codebooks is that the computational complexity and memory requirements can be reduced to a very great extent. This is because the number of bits used for codebook generation will be divided among the sets of the decomposed codebook [12, 18]. Examples of product code vector quantization techniques are Split Vector Quantization (SVQ), Multistage Vector Quantization (MSVQ), Split-Multistage Vector Quantization (S-MSVQ), Switched Split Vector Quantization (SSVQ). In this thesis two product code vector quantization techniques are proposed they are: Switched Multistage Vector Quantization (SWMSVQ) and Multi Switched Split Vector Quantization (MSSVQ) techniques [54, 72]. The main disadvantage of Unconstrained Vector Quantizer is that the complexity, memory requirements are very high and the generation of codebook is a very difficult task as vectors of full length are used for quantization without any structural constraint. As a result more number of training vectors and bits cannot be used for codebook generation. With these constraints the quantizer cannot produce better quality quantized outputs. So to improve the performance of Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique a well known technique called Split Vector Quantization has been developed. The concept behind Split Vector Quantization is that, in it vectors of larger dimensions are splitted into vectors of smaller dimensions and the bits allocated to the quantizer are divided among the splits (parts). Due to splitting the dimension of a vector gets decreased hence more number of training vectors and bits are used for codebook generation. As a result the performance of quantization is increas ed, the complexity and memory requirements are reduced. But the main disadvantage with this technique is that, due to splitting the linear and non linear dependencies that exist between the samples of a vector will be lost and the shape of the quantizer cells will be affected. As a result the spectral distortion increases slightly. This increase in spectral distortion can be compensated by increasing the number of training vectors and using more number of bits for codebook generation. The number of splits in this type of quantizer must be limited in number otherwise the vector quantizer will act as a scalar quantizer. In Split Vector Quantization the training sequence used for codebook generation will also be splitted into vectors of smaller dimension and each split of the training sequence is used to generate separate sub codebooks, there by independent vector quantizers exist and the bits must be allocated to each of them. As a result less number of bits will be available at each quantizer, the computational complexity and memory requirements gets reduced as they depend on the number of bits allocated to the quantizer and on the dimension of the vector to be quantized. The block diagram of a three part Split vector quantizer is shown in Fig 4.5. From Fig 4.5 it can be observed that a vector S1 of dimension n is quantized by splitting it into sub-vectors S11, S12, S13 of smaller dimensions. Each of these sub-vectors are quantized using their respective codebooks. In this work the order of the filter is taken as 10 and so the LSF vector contain 10 samples and these 10 samples are splitted into three parts of 3, 3, 4 samples [54, 73-75]. From results of Split Vector Quantization technique it is proved that the computational complexity and memory requirements gets decreased when compared to Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique. So Split Vector Quantization technique is superior to Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique in terms of the computational complexity and memory requirements. In a Split Vector Quantizer of n dimension, SP splits, operating at b bits per vector. The vector space Rn will be splitted into SP subspaces or splits or parts of lower dimension then the dimension of each subspace will be and . The number of independent quantizers will be equal to the number of splits and the bits used for quantization are divided among the splits and is . Where is the number of bits allocated to each vector quantizer. The computational complexity of a Split Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.27) Where ni is the dimension of a sub-vector in ith split bi is the number of bits allocated to the ith split of a quantizer sp is the number of splits. The Memory requirements of a Split Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.28) Multistage Vector Quantization is a modification of Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique. It is also called as Multistep, Residual or Cascaded Vector Quantization. Multistage Vector Quantization (MSVQ) technique preserves all the features of Unconstrained Vector Quantization technique and decreases the computational complexity, memory requirements and spectral distortion when compared to it. When compared to Split Vector Quantization technique, Multistage Vector Quantization technique shows significant improvement in the quality of the speech signal, by decreasing the spectral distortion, but at the expense of increased computational complexity and memory requirements. This is because Split Vector Quantization technique deals with vectors of lower dimensions while Unconstrained and Multistage Vector Quantization techniques deal with vectors of larger dimensions. So the complexity and memory requirements are less for Split Vector Quantization technique. Multistage Vector Quantizer is a cascaded connection of several vector quantizers, where the output of one stage is given as an input to the next stage and the bits used for quantization are divided among the stages connected in cascade [12, 14]. As a result the computational complexity and memory requirements get reduced when compared to Unconstrained Vector Quantizer. The generation of codebooks at different stages of a three stage MSVQ is shown in Fig 4.6. From Fig 4.6 it can be observed that the codebook at the first stage is generated by taking the training sequence as an input. At the second stage the codebook is generated using the quantization errors of the first stage, likewise the codebook at the third stage is generated using the quantization errors of the second stage. This process is continued for the required number of stages [76-80]. The block diagram of a three stage Multistage Vector Quantizer is shown in Fig 4.7. Its implementation requires the design of vector quantizers at each stage. In Multistage Vector Quantization the input vector s to be quantized is passed through the first stage of the vector quantizer so as to obtain the quantized version of the input vector i.e., . The quantization error or residual error at the first stage will be computed which is the difference of the input vector and the quantized version of the input vector. The quantization error at the first stage is given as an input to the vector quantizer of the second stage so as to obtain the quantized version of the error vector at the first stage i.e., . Likewise the quantization error at the second stage will be given as an input to the vector quantizer of the third stage so as to obtain the quantized version of the error vector at the second stage i.e., and this process can be continued for the required number of stages. Finally the decoder takes the indices Ii from each quantizer stage and adds the corresponding c odewords to obtain the quantized version of the input vector i.e., [54]. In a Multistage Vector Quantizer each stage acts as an independent vector quantizer and the total bits available for vector quantization will be divided among the stages. Then the complexity of a particular stage becomes, where bj is the number of bits allocated to the jth stage. This is less than the complexity of Unconstrained Vector Quantizer. Likewise the memory requirements at each stage are , which is less than the memory requirements of Unconstrained Vector Quantizer. The computational complexity of a Multistage Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.29) Where n is the dimension of the vector bj is the number of bits allocated to the jth stage P is the number of stages The Memory requirements of a Multistage Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.30) In order to improve the performance of Multistage Vector Quantization and Split Vector Quantization techniques a hybrid product code vector quantization technique called Split-Multistage Vector Quantization technique has been developed. Split-Multistage Vector Quantization technique is a hybrid of Multistage Vector Quantization and Split Vector Quantization techniques. At reasonable improvement in the quality of the output speech signal, Split-Multistage Vector Quantization technique provides the lowest spectral distortion, computational complexity and memory requirements when compared to Unconstrained Vector Quantization, Multistage Vector Quantization and Split Vector Quantization techniques [73-80]. The decrease in spectral distortion is due to summing of the quantized errors at each stage. In Split-Multistage Vector Quantization the dimension of the vectors to be quantized has been reduced by means of splitting. Likewise the bits used for quantization are also divided among the stages and among the splits of each stage. As a result the computational complexity and memory requirements get decreased when compared to Unconstrained Vector Quantization, Multistage Vector Quantization and Split Vector Quantization techniques. This is due to the decrease in the dimension of vectors, number of bits used for quantization at each stage and at each split of the vector quantizer. The generation of the codebooks at each stage of the Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer is similar to the codebooks generation at each stage of the Multistage Vector Quantizer. But the difference is that each stage of the Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer involves the generation of several sub codebooks. The number of sub codebooks generated at each stage is equal to the number of splits at that stage. In this work, Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer with three parts (splits) and three stages have been developed. The performance of quantization depends on the number of stages and on the number of splits at each stage. As the number of stages increases the quality of the quantized output can be increased, but there must be a limit on the number of stages and on the number of splits at each stage as the number of bits at each stage is limited. The allocation of the bits at each stage is shown in Table 4.1 and the allocation of bits to each split of a stage is shown in Table 4.2. From Ta bles 4.1 and 4.2 it can be observed that the minimum number of bits at each stage with three parts must be at least three. So with three parts (splits) and three stages, in Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer the number of bits at a frame cannot be reduced below 9 bits. The block diagram of a Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer with three parts and three stages is shown in Fig 4.8. The block diagram is similar to three stage Multistage Vector Quantizer except for the splits at each stage. In Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer each split is treated as a separate vector quantizer and the vectors at each split are quantized independently. The quantization mechanism involved in Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer is similar to the quantization mechanism involved in Multistage Vector Quantizer, except that in Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer at each stage the sub-vectors are quantized independently. Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer is a hybrid of Split Vector Quantizer and Multistage Vector Quantizer. The equations for computational complexity and memory requirements are derived from the complexity and memory requirement equations of a Split Vector Quantizer and Multistage Vector Quantizer. Equations (4.31) and (4.32) below are obtained from the equations (4.29) and (4.30) by including the splits (SP) at each stage with a summation term having limits from 1 to SP. The computational complexity of a Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.31) Where nji is the dimension of a sub-vector in jth stage ith split bji is the number of bits allocated to the jth stage and ith split of a quantizer P is the number of stages sp is the number of splits. The Memory requirements of a Split-Multistage Vector Quantizer is given by equation (4.32) Switched Split Vector Quantization (SSVQ) is one of the latest vector quantization techniques and is developed to improve the performance of Split Vector Quantization technique. Switched Split Vector Quantization technique is a hybrid of Switch Vector Quantization and Split Vector Quantization techniques and is used to exploit the linear and non linear dependencies that exist between the splits of a Split Vector Quantizer. In Switched Split Vector Quantizer initially the Switch Vector Quantizer partitions the entire vector space into voronoi regions and exploits the dependencies that exist across all dimensions of the vector space. Then a Split Vector Quantizer is designed for each of the voronoi regions. As a Split Vector Quantizer is adapted to the local statistics of the Voronoi region the sub optimalitys of the Split Vector Quantizer will be localized. In a Switched Split Vector Quantizer a number of vector quantizers are connected in parallel and it can be implemented in two wa ys: hard decision scheme and soft decision scheme. In hard decision scheme each vector to be quantized is quantized in only one of the codebooks connected in parallel, the selection of a codebook for quantization depends on the nearest codeword selected in the initial codebook. An initial codebook is one which is designed for the selection of a switch. The initial codebook is generated by the training vectors used for the generation of the codebooks at the vector quantizers connected in parallel. The number of codewords or centroids in the initial codebook is equal to the number of switches chosen or number of codebooks connected in parallel and these centroids are used to form the Switch Vector Quantizer. In soft decision sc

Aspire...To Be More Than Youre Worth Essay -- Literary Analysis

Multiple readings took place during the postmodern time period; they described ideas ranging from conceptual frameworks and ideologies to science and realism. The novel took place during the postmodernism era, yet it still strongly relates to today’s society. How humans interact with one another plays a huge role throughout this novel as; Camus exemplifies a haunting nineteenth century postmodern novel that expresses human emotions through his characters; making The Stranger one of the greatest pieces of literature for generations to come. Before writing his novel, The Stranger, Albert Camus became experienced in writing. The French novelist â€Å"†¦was born in Mondovi, Algeria, and was educated at the University of Algiers† (Olafson 1). After studying theater, Camus soon came to the realization he wanted to become a novelist. During the first few months out of college, Camus â€Å"†¦was active writing and producing plays for a theater group he had founded in Algiers. About the same time he began his career as a journalist, and in 1940 he moved to Paris† (Olafson 1). Producing plays set a respectable background for Camus; as this led him to become an improved writer and produce novels as well. Albert Camus began his literary frame â€Å"†¦in 1942 [with his first] novel, L’etranger (The Stranger)† (Olafson 1). This novel was one of Camus’s more famous pieces of work; it describes human battles as well as their aspirations. Throughout The Stranger, Camus uses worl d views of well-known philosophers; even â€Å"Though he was baptized, raised, and educated as a Catholic and invariably respectful towards the Church, Camus seems to have been a natural-born pagan†; therefore, the development of Christian literature and philosophy helped influence Cam... ...e Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 May 2012. "Postmodernism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 6. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 395-397. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 May 2012. Boucher, Jean-Yves. "Camus, Albert." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. Ed. Robert Kastenbaum. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2002. 87-88. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 May 2012. Camus, Albert. The Stranger. United Kingdom: Vintage International Books, 1988. Print. Danesi, Marcel. "Postmodernism." Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics. Ed. Carl Mitcham. Vol. 3. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. 1462-1464. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 May 2012. Novels for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski and Deborah A. Stanley. Vol. 6. Detroit: Gale, 1999. p276-296.